Beyond temporal overlap: Rethinking predator–prey temporal mismatch in large terrestrial mammals

Predator–prey temporal overlap is commonly framed as a proxy for predation risk and hunting success. Consequently, temporal mismatch is often interpreted as beneficial for prey and disadvantageous for predators. Many studies reporting anthropogenic alterations of predator–prey temporal overlap frequently deem reduced mismatch to heighten predation risk. However, evidence from large terrestrial mammals shows that temporal mismatch is widespread. We review existing literature and synthesise a reinterpretation of predator–prey temporal relationships in large terrestrial mammals, suggesting that temporal mismatch may constitute a functional outcome of predator–prey temporal games rather than a suboptimal condition. Effective predation arises through a sequence of mechanistic steps beyond simple temporal overlap, linking spatiotemporal co-occurrence, detection, propensity to attack, and capture success. As hunting efficiency can vary considerably across the diel cycle, predators may at times maximise fitness not by tracking prey activity, but by remaining active when prey are less active yet more vulnerable to capture. Within this perspective, temporal refuges emerge as windows of reduced hunting efficiency rather than periods of low predator activity. Predator–prey temporal relationships should ultimately be interpreted within a broader framework shaped by coevolutionary histories, physiological and sensory constraints, fluctuating environmental conditions, and human disturbance.