Predators in the night, prey in the light: ecology, evolution and implications of temporal mismatch in predator–prey interactions among large terrestrial mammals

Time is a core, yet often undervalued, ecological dimension structuring predator–prey interactions worldwide. In large terrestrial mammals, a growing wealth of empirical evidence documents frequent temporal mismatches in daily activity rhythms between predator and prey across diverse taxonomic, ecological and geographical contexts. Nevertheless, such mismatches are commonly interpreted as maladaptive, based on the underlying assumption that temporal overlap is equivalent to increased predation success. Here, we challenge this axiom by reframing predator–prey temporal mismatch in large terrestrial mammals as a recurrent and potentially functional outcome of shared evolutionary histories, physiological and sensory constraints, and current predator–prey mechanisms. We conducted an extensive interdisciplinary review of theoretical and empirical studies addressing activity rhythms and temporal interactions in large terrestrial mammals, focusing on temporal mismatch in predator–prey systems involving large carnivores and ungulates. The literature was analysed across six complementary dimensions: (i) evolutionary origins of temporal mismatch and long-term temporal niche conservatism, (ii) physiological and sensory constraints on activity timing, (iii) environmental drivers modulating daily activity rhythms, (iv) predator–prey interaction mechanisms ranging from temporal synchronization to segregation, (v) anthropogenic factors affecting temporal behaviour, and (vi) socio-ecological implications and opportunities for mammal conservation and human–wildlife coexistence. Studies were compared across taxa, ecosystems and gradients of human disturbance to identify recurring patterns and principles underlying temporal mismatch. Overall, temporal mismatch in predator–prey interactions among large terrestrial mammals emerges as a widespread and persistent pattern rather than an anomaly. Evidence indicates that temporal mismatch is rooted in conserved coevolutionary histories, nowadays still corroborated by taxon-specific physiological and sensory constraints. Predator–prey interactions dynamically unfold along a continuum between temporal synchronization and segregation. Temporal refuges oftentimes represent an effective antipredator strategy, potentially promoting temporal mismatch, without undermining opportunities for predation. Environmental drivers, such as weather conditions and moonlight, frequently modulate these dynamics, whereas anthropogenic pressures, including artificial light at night, noise, infrastructure, as well as lethal and non-lethal activities, increasingly impose forced temporal shifts, often disrupting temporal balance beyond historically adaptive ranges. Our work suggests that temporal mismatch in predator–prey interactions among large terrestrial mammals is not inherently maladaptive. Conversely, it may act as a functional mechanism contributing to the persistence of predator–prey systems. Nonetheless, ongoing anthropogenic changes may transform historically adaptive temporal relationships into temporal ecological traps. Recognising time as a fundamental ecological axis can strengthen our understanding of predator–prey dynamics, and may open new frontiers for developing more comprehensive, effective and socially sustainable strategies for mammal conservation and management, ultimately enhancing human–wildlife coexistence.