Ketone bodies are small compounds derived from fatty acids that serve as an alternative energy source for mitochondria, especially when insulin levels are low, such as during fasting or exercise. Among these, β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) is particularly significant due to its metabolic and signaling functions across various tissues, including brain, heart, and skeletal muscle. Notably, exogenous BHB supplementation offers a novel way to induce nutritional ketosis without strict dietary adherence, making it a promising therapeutic tool. The numerous breakthroughs in medical research allow for the extension of life expectancies seen in the older population today. On the other hand, the growing aging population has led to an increased incidence of neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Huntington’s disease (HD), showing profound effects on global economy by augmenting healthcare costs and reducing productivity for both patients and caregivers. In order to counteract this phenomenon, research has been investigating the possible etiological causes, suggesting that age-related metabolic changes, along with genetic and environmental factors, contribute to AD pathology. Infections with bacteria, viruses, and fungi are also implicated in cognitive impairment, with Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) being a notable potential contributor. HSV-1 establishes lifelong infections in the nervous system and can trigger chronic inflammation, which may promote AD development. In this framework, ketogenic diet (KD) has been recognized for its neuroprotective effects, particularly in brain injury and neurodegenerative diseases. Hence, BHB supplementation presents a new frontier in health research, with promising potential in reducing AD pathology, exerting neuroprotective effects, and even lowering AD risk by targeting causative agents like HSV-1. Despite limited literature on BHB’s direct effects on viral infections, immunometabolic interventions have already been stated as effective in supporting antiviral responses and recovery. This thesis explores the probable benefits of a novel compound, DAG/MAG-BHB, suggesting it as a promising candidate for innovative therapeutic strategies with wide-ranging applications. DAG/MAG-BHB has been shown to cross the blood-brain barrier, indicating prolonged efficacy and neuroprotection. It supports metabolism under various conditions, enhancing mitochondrial function, membrane potential and ATP production, even in altered glucose or insulin environments. Additionally, in vivo studies have highlighted its cardioprotective properties, making it a valuable tool for cardiovascular health. In the context of AD, DAG/MAG-BHB was shown to modulate beta-amyloid (Aβ) plaque formation, promoting the less toxic Aβ 1-40 isoform while reducing the harmful Aβ 1-42. Furthermore, it may mitigate the effects of HSV-1 on brain cells by lowering inflammation, reducing amyloid buildup, and influencing antiviral responses. These findings suggest that DAG/MAG-BHB offers a versatile therapeutic option for neurodegenerative and metabolic disorders, also affecting AD causative factors as infections. Beyond its medical implications, the ketone supplement market is expected to benefit from the therapeutic applications of ketone bodies, potentially reducing the significant financial costs associated with neurodegenerative diseases. By addressing critical health challenges, this study underscores the potential of DAG/MAG-BHB as an innovative and impactful treatment strategy, leading to the improvement of both human wellbeing and global economy.

I corpi chetonici sono composti che derivano dagli acidi grassi e fungono da fonte energetica alternativa per i mitocondri, specialmente quando i livelli di insulina sono bassi, come durante il digiuno o l'esercizio fisico. Tra questi, il β-idrossibutirrato (BHB) è particolarmente significativo per le sue funzioni metaboliche e di segnalazione in vari tessuti, tra cui cervello, cuore e muscoli scheletrici. In particolare, l'assunzione esogena di BHB offre una soluzione innovativa per indurre la chetosi nutrizionale, proponendosi come un'interessante opzione terapeutica verso vari stati patologici. Sebbene i numerosi avanzamenti nella ricerca medica abbiano permesso l'aumento delle aspettative di vita, si è progressivamente osservato un aumento dell'incidenza di malattie neurodegenerative, quali il morbo di Alzheimer (AD), il morbo di Parkinson (PD), la sclerosi laterale amiotrofica (ALS) e la malattia di Huntington (HD), con impatti significativi sull'economia globale relativamente ai costi sanitari e alla produttività sia dei pazienti che dei caregiver. Per contrastare questo fenomeno, i ricercatori hanno indagato le possibili cause eziologiche, suggerendo come i cambiamenti metabolici legati all'età, insieme ai fattori genetici e ambientali, contribuiscano alla patologia dell'AD. Inoltre, le infezioni causate da agenti come batteri, virus e funghi sembrano essere coinvolte nei disturbi cognitivi, in particolare il virus Herpes simplex di tipo 1 (HSV-1). Infatti, HSV-1 ha la capacità di invadere il sistema nervoso e comportare infezioni latenti, scatenando un’infiammazione di tipo cronico che sembrerebbe favorire l'insorgenza dell'AD. La dieta chetogenica (KD) è stata riconosciuta per i suoi effetti neuroprotettivi, in particolare nei confronti di lesioni cerebrali e nelle malattie neurodegenerative. Di conseguenza, l'assunzione di BHB come integratore segna una nuova frontiera nella ricerca, contrastando l’insorgenza dell’AD attraverso i suoi effetti neuroprotettivi o agendo sugli agenti causali della neurodegenerazione, come HSV-1. Nonostante la limitata conoscenza scientifica sugli effetti diretti del BHB nei confronti delle infezioni virali, l’efficacia degli interventi immunometabolici è già stata validata in relazione alle risposte antivirali. Questa tesi esplora i possibili effetti benefici del composto DAG/MAG-BHB, suggerendolo come una promettente strategia terapeutica con applicazioni ad ampio spettro. È stato dimostrato che il DAG/MAG-BHB non solo è in grado di attraversare la barriera ematoencefalica, svolgendo un effetto neuroprotettivo con efficacia duratura, ma è inoltre efficace nel supportare il metabolismo, migliorando la funzione mitocondriale, il potenziale di membrana e la produzione di ATP, anche in condizioni di glucosio o insulina alterati. In aggiunta, gli studi in vivo hanno messo in evidenza le sue proprietà cardioprotettive, attribuendogli un ruolo chiave nella salute cardiovascolare. In riferimento all'AD, è stato dimostrato che il DAG/MAG-BHB modula la formazione delle placche di beta-amiloide (Aβ), riducendo l'Aβ 1-42, a favore dell'isoforma meno tossica Aβ 1-40. Inoltre, il composto potrebbe mitigare gli effetti neurotossici dell'HSV-1 attraverso la diminuzione dell'infiammazione, riducendo l'accumulo di amiloide e influenzando le risposte antivirali. I risultati ottenuti supportano il ruolo del DAG/MAG-BHB nei confronti dei disturbi neurodegenerativi e metabolici, mediante il possibile effetto del chetone nei confronti di agenti causali come le infezioni. Questo studio sottolinea il potenziale terapeutico del DAG/MAG-BHB, proponendolo come un trattamento innovativo dall’importante ricaduta a livello sia dello stato di salute dell’uomo che economico.

Multidisciplinary Insights into the Role of a Beta-Hydroxybutyrate (BHB)-Based Supplement in Neurodegenerative Processes and Related Infections

SCHIUMA, GIOVANNA
2025

Abstract

Ketone bodies are small compounds derived from fatty acids that serve as an alternative energy source for mitochondria, especially when insulin levels are low, such as during fasting or exercise. Among these, β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) is particularly significant due to its metabolic and signaling functions across various tissues, including brain, heart, and skeletal muscle. Notably, exogenous BHB supplementation offers a novel way to induce nutritional ketosis without strict dietary adherence, making it a promising therapeutic tool. The numerous breakthroughs in medical research allow for the extension of life expectancies seen in the older population today. On the other hand, the growing aging population has led to an increased incidence of neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Huntington’s disease (HD), showing profound effects on global economy by augmenting healthcare costs and reducing productivity for both patients and caregivers. In order to counteract this phenomenon, research has been investigating the possible etiological causes, suggesting that age-related metabolic changes, along with genetic and environmental factors, contribute to AD pathology. Infections with bacteria, viruses, and fungi are also implicated in cognitive impairment, with Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) being a notable potential contributor. HSV-1 establishes lifelong infections in the nervous system and can trigger chronic inflammation, which may promote AD development. In this framework, ketogenic diet (KD) has been recognized for its neuroprotective effects, particularly in brain injury and neurodegenerative diseases. Hence, BHB supplementation presents a new frontier in health research, with promising potential in reducing AD pathology, exerting neuroprotective effects, and even lowering AD risk by targeting causative agents like HSV-1. Despite limited literature on BHB’s direct effects on viral infections, immunometabolic interventions have already been stated as effective in supporting antiviral responses and recovery. This thesis explores the probable benefits of a novel compound, DAG/MAG-BHB, suggesting it as a promising candidate for innovative therapeutic strategies with wide-ranging applications. DAG/MAG-BHB has been shown to cross the blood-brain barrier, indicating prolonged efficacy and neuroprotection. It supports metabolism under various conditions, enhancing mitochondrial function, membrane potential and ATP production, even in altered glucose or insulin environments. Additionally, in vivo studies have highlighted its cardioprotective properties, making it a valuable tool for cardiovascular health. In the context of AD, DAG/MAG-BHB was shown to modulate beta-amyloid (Aβ) plaque formation, promoting the less toxic Aβ 1-40 isoform while reducing the harmful Aβ 1-42. Furthermore, it may mitigate the effects of HSV-1 on brain cells by lowering inflammation, reducing amyloid buildup, and influencing antiviral responses. These findings suggest that DAG/MAG-BHB offers a versatile therapeutic option for neurodegenerative and metabolic disorders, also affecting AD causative factors as infections. Beyond its medical implications, the ketone supplement market is expected to benefit from the therapeutic applications of ketone bodies, potentially reducing the significant financial costs associated with neurodegenerative diseases. By addressing critical health challenges, this study underscores the potential of DAG/MAG-BHB as an innovative and impactful treatment strategy, leading to the improvement of both human wellbeing and global economy.
RIZZO, Roberta
MUNARI, Cristina
MAZZANTI, Massimiliano
SPINOZZI, Paola
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Utilizza questo identificativo per citare o creare un link a questo documento: https://hdl.handle.net/11392/2584708
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